Part 31
By Harith Ubaidah
The Organization of the Naval Forces
Among the preparations to which the Sultan devoted exceptional attention was the strengthening of the Ottoman navy and the expansion of its fleet. He sought to increase the number of ships beyond anything previously assembled so that the forces would be capable of mounting a decisive assault on Constantinople. The siege of a maritime city such as Constantinople was impossible without a powerful naval presence. Historical accounts state that nearly four hundred ships were constructed for this purpose.
Treaties with Various States
Before advancing on Constantinople, Sultan Mehmed concluded peace with several of his rivals in order to secure his fronts and confront a single enemy without distraction. He also forged a treaty with the neighboring principality of Galata, situated to the east of Constantinople and separated from it by the waters of the Golden Horn.
Agreements were likewise made with the kingdoms of Hungary and Venice, both of which lay close to the Byzantine capital. Yet when the assault on Constantinople began, these agreements were not honored. Alongside forces from other Christian lands, the armies of these states also took part in supporting and defending the besieged city.
As Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror awaited the moment of victory, the Byzantine Emperor offered vast wealth in an effort to break the siege. He sought alliances across various regions and exerted great effort to dissuade the Sultan from his goal, but the Sultan rejected every proposal. He had resolved that, regardless of circumstance, he would seize the city and remove every pretext raised against the Ottoman state.
When the Byzantine Emperor became aware that the Ottoman army could not be bribed and that its resolve to capture the city was unshakable, he turned to the courts of Europe for assistance. In particular, he appealed to the spiritual head of the Catholic world, even though Constantinople was the center of Orthodox Christianity and the two communities had long-standing theological and political differences. For the sake of preserving his empire, the Emperor set aside religious divisions and sought the aid of the Pope in Rome.
Driven by necessity, the Emperor adopted a policy of alignment with the Papacy and attempted to win the Pope’s support. He declared his willingness to submit to the Pope’s authority for the sake of Christian unity and harmony within the Eastern Orthodox Church. This took place despite strong opposition from the Orthodox clergy and population.
In response, the Pope sent an envoy to Constantinople. The envoy delivered a sermon in the city’s grandest church, Hagia Sophia, and offered prayers for the Pope. When this was announced, many Orthodox believers were outraged. The public rose in anger against both the Emperor and the Papacy. Some went so far as to say, “We would rather see the turbans of the Turks in the houses of the Byzantines than the hats of the Latins.”
The city of Constantinople was naturally fortified on three sides by the Bosphorus Strait, the Sea of Marmara, and the waters of the Golden Horn. Heavy chains and large iron barriers were stretched across the entrance of the Golden Horn to prevent ships from passing. Whenever the chain was tightened, no vessel could enter. In addition, two large fortresses stood facing each other from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn, aligned in a straight line. Beside them ran a small river known as the Lykos.